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An overview of medical education and training

With a growing population and the global need for healers and administrators needed to run medical services, the need for medical professionals around the world is greater than ever. Today the medical profession and health care has become one of the largest industries in the world with a variety of specialties and fields of support, with the participation of all administrative and clerical work in medical research, development and technology. In fact, in the new millennium, health care has become a priority for governments and corporations around the world to invest in.

general

Medical Education is acceptable international foundation to learn the arts of healing and procedures on modern medicine today. Every country in the world has its own format, internationally acceptable solution to the education and training of medical students and health and each has its own – the methodology of training and qualification (and licensed) professionals enter this field – very similar. Worldwide, there are many traditional medical training institutions with a philosophy centered on the development of future generations of experts and industry leaders in this field, and future medical students have a variety of options when searching for the institution right to join, and the doctors right to learn.

Entry into the medical field

Around the world, different curricula are followed and the entry into medical school for the training required for prospective students meet certain criteria

-. Undergraduate Entry (European and Asian countries)

Undergraduate entry usually requires that students have completed at least a high school (or level in the UK) the certificate and sometimes a year of study preparation before entering the dedicated medical education

-. Second entry (first professional degree – the U.S. and Canada)

A title is for the second entry which requires a student who has completed 2-3 years of education (university level) as a pre- requirement for entry into medical education. This level is considered a “professional grade” (as a Ph.D. or MS) after the first degree is completed in a science related discipline

-. Graduate Entry – Graduate program input (GEP or GMP)

This is medical, that occur outside the U.S. and Canada, where the entrance is offered to college graduates or college who have completed a degree and have taken an aptitude test (MCAT etc).

Graduate Education

Time-trained doctors are required to complete a specified period of practical training, usually with a hospital or clinic. Before doctors can be registered as licensed professionals anywhere in the world, are required to complete this supervised “hands-on ‘training period (called a residency or internship – a program of’ Scrubs’ aka), which usually takes a year

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– continuing medical education (CME)

Continuing medical education is a necessity in many parts of the world for medical practice to keep their licenses. This education is carried out regularly by doctors and other professionals (such as medical technicians and nurses) in order to maintain an update of current knowledge on current developments, practices and the latest modern medical technology (examples include: IV Certification)

– the medical education and technical basis medical training base, always in traditional medical institutions, is divided into two separate forms. These are called:

– Preclinical

These are the basic sciences that deal with the human body and its functions and a very detailed study of pharmacology, physiology, pathology, anatomy, biochemistry, etc.

– Clinical Science

They involve a study of science procedural and clinical medicine and is in studies in internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and finally, surgery.

In addition to these core areas of training and education

, there opportunities in the medical industry as medical technicians. This line of alternative medicine includes the following main areas of work:

Service Center and surgical technique: an expert in operating room sterilization procedures and medical devices surgery. The work includes assisting in surgery, sterilization and proper handling of equipment

Clinical Laboratory Technical Assistant and Phlebotomy. The technician collects the blood, saliva and urine samples and processes for testing and really performs these tests as well.

Dialysis Technician:. trained to perform dialysis procedures

Health Care Professionals: Perform administrative tasks in the management of healthcare facilities and perform tasks related to basic patient care ( prospective students require only a high school diploma in the U.S.)

Medical Technology: .. Lab work including performing diagnostic tests, etc. This field requires a 4 year degree and certification relevant national association

Professional Sports Medicine: This area is relevant to orthopedics, biomechanics, physiotherapy and massage and nutrition. To practice in this area, a full degree and license required

References.

Wikipedia SchoolsGalore.com

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DISCLAIMER: is a GENERAL OVERVIEW and may or may not reflect specific practices, courses and / or services associated with any particular school (s) that is or is not advertised on SchoolsGalore.com

Copyright 2009. – All rights reserved by Media Positive Communications, Inc.

Note: The editors are free to use this article in a newsletter or website, provided that the article is reproduced in its entirety, including copyright and responsibility, and all links remain intact and active

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An overview of the buy of discount prescription online

The cost of pharmaceuticals has risen recently, and thanks to health insurance also underwent a major reform to address rising drug costs. Now the health plans do not cover the cost of medicine. These changes to the left of the average Joe looking for an alternative way to meet your needs prescription medication.

Some people chose to cross the border and go to Canada or Mexico, where prescription drugs are about sixty-four percent cheaper than the price of drugs in the United States. And then there are some who prefer to stay in the comfort of their homes and rely on the power of modern technology. Thanks to advances in the Internet, pharmacies and other services are available on the World Wide Web.

Internet pharmacies selling prescription drugs abound off the web. You can get prescription medications like Fioricet online without prescription. It is so simple that it need not be an Internet expert to be able to question. All you need is a team, a quick Internet connection enough, and a credit card or debit card to make a buy. Just write the prescription drug you are looking to buy in any search engine and click on the search, to find a lot of links directing you to hundreds of thousands of Internet pharmacies. But how do you know which ones are excellent and not />
Here are some tips to help you discern well the online pharmacies from the terrible:?.

1 Find an Internet pharmacy whose headquarters and warehouse are located within the United States. Make sure the company page shows a registered office address of comprehensive and credible, phone number and email address. Furthermore, for most states in the U.S., it is illegal to bring prescription drugs from foreign countries.
2. Check the company’s license and certification. Contact your local board of pharmacy of the state for a list of licensed pharmacies can operate in or dispense medications to their state. You can also go to the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) official website for a list of online pharmacies that have passed the standards established by the NABP plates with different pharmacies in the state to become part of the verified Internet Pharmacy Practice Sites (VIPPS).
3. Search Internet pharmacies require a valid prescription before selling prescription drugs. Recipe note serves as a written confirmation of a recent visit to the doctor and have undergone a physical examination. By law, the pharmacy will not, either terrestrial or Internet, you can sell prescription drugs to people without a valid prescription note.
4. Make sure the online pharmacy has a credible policy to protect your privacy and security of its customers. Read and know the company policy of privacy to ensure that the company does not sell or use your information for any other purpose other than the reason that was collected in the first place.

Always remember that no medical questionnaire filled at any pharmacy in the Internet without verifying the integrity of the site. With increasing cases of drug counterfeiting and identity theft reports against some online pharmacy companies, it is better to be prudent and safe to be neglected and sorry.

Oriental Medicine Course: Overview
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Oriental Medicine Course (s) in the United States and Canada. According to the Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine Alliance Acupuncture occupations have nearly tripled, in addition, Oriental medicine is one of the fastest growing froms of health care in the United States, mainly due to its low cost, treatment effectiveness and health insurance.

It is a right of Oriental medicine meant for you?

Once applied to a course in oriental medicine, prepared to be captivated! Besides learning about the variety of natural therapies such as acupuncture, herbal medicine and TCM (traditional Chinese medicine), students will learn about the modalities of bodywork such as acupressure, Tuina (Chinese medical massage) and Shiatsu. Br

Other common studies in Oriental medicine courses involving scientific training in anatomy, physiology, chemistry, pharmacology and pathology. In addition, students will complete practical training in needling techniques, prescription and herbal formulation, moxibustion, cupping and as well as Tai Chi and Qigong.

While not all healing arts school curriculum offers the same, a field of Oriental medicine often involves education in the Five Elements, Meridian Therapies, and the principles of Qi.

Depending on the nature of oriental medicine course, students who successfully complete the required training may be awarded a certificate, diploma or certificate concerned.

For example, if you are interested in becoming a professional acupuncturist, you must register for a course in oriental medicine that will result in a degree of Master of Science in Oriental Medicine. Curriculum in this program include advanced training in medical terminology china medicine, herbal, acupuncture, traditional Chinese medicine and pathology, as well as further education and clinical practice.

A typical certification program in a course of Oriental Medicine is Tuina (Chinese medical massage). Students in this course of study to learn philosophies and principles of traditional Chinese medicine and therapeutic bodywork based on acupressure meridian therapy and Shiatsu.

After successfully achieving his degree, certificate or diploma from a course of Oriental Medicine, you can go to the acquisition of professional careers of Oriental medicine, massage therapists and licensed acupuncturists.

If you (or someone you know) are interested in oriental medicine course (s), let professional training in the quick-growing industries like massage therapy, cosmetology, acupuncture, oriental medicine, Reiki, and others get you started! Explore career school programs near you />



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Today Medicine: Complete Overview of Medical Specialties

Overview of medical specialties
Emergency Care Review As the population ages, the need for emergency and urgent care also rises. The shortage of physicians in the United States is expected to go down over time. Other issues are also encouraging this shortage, including the spiraling economy and the recent reform of health care approved. As is the case in other parts of the country, Emergency Medicine in Texas is experiencing many of the same challenges as other specialties.
Urology, the field of surgery of the urinary tract and male reproductive system, is an ever-growing field of doctors in the United States. Now, approximately forty-three million men in America are full of urological diseases of some sort. Some of these diseases include non-surgical bladder incontinence, urinary tract infections, and benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Until there is resolution to the current political debate, the health industry is in limbo. The same thing happened when Hillary Clinton was the main impetus for health reform in 1993. Only when it becomes clear what will be the future, hospitals and doctors are unable to make plans for the future.
A recent study shows that students are medical reports, the election will not specialize in gynecology because of the high cost of malpractice insurance. Litigation has caused insurance premiums to rise, which has led to many leaving gynecologist practice. Meanwhile, the number of posts is expected to grow quicker than average between now and 2014 due to population growth. This has resulted in fewer health care options in many states for women.
History Cardiology Cardiology is the first medical specialty throughout the history of modern medicine. Cardiologists treat diseases and heart irregularities. A general cardiologist not perform the surgery. Doctors in the field of performing cardiac surgery cardiology include pulmonologists, cardiothoracic surgeons and cardiovascular surgeons. Modern cardiology has a history deeply rooted in the theories in use dates back to 1628.
It is obvious that as the population ages the need for oncology services will increase. The only question to question is that there will be money to pay for this increased need and where it comes from this economy? The ongoing debate between Republicans and Democrats on health care really focuses on whether it should occur at all, and if you do, you will pay additional 30 million people to be insured.
Overview/Introduction- Specialist Hospital in the United States, there are about twenty-eight thousand hospitals practicing today. Approximately 50% of hospitals across the country have a branch of the specialized unit. Due to the increasing demand of many schools of medicine are being developed based hospitalists residences. Hospitalists have just developed over the last ten or fifteen years.
Demographics The face of America is changing dramatically as a new report by the Office of the U.S. Census the average age is increasing rapidly. The number of people over 65 is expected to double over the next 25 years. Nearly 20% of Americans will be 65 years or more in 2030. In addition, the age group 85 years is now the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population. The health of older Americans is improving.
HEALTH REFORM ongoing saga of health reform has an impact on all fields. Until it becomes clear exactly what is changing and how that will affect every part of the market will be paralyzed. Indecision effects of spending on expansion and recruitment for all levels of health care. Some aspects of the bill are trying to solve the shortage in primary care.
Emergency Care Review As the population ages, the need for Emergency and Urgent Care also grows. The shortage of doctors is in the United States is expected to worsen over time. Other issues affecting this shortage and the shrinking economy and the reform of health care imminent. Shortage of Primary Care Urgent Care has a shortage of doctors.
Desigual supply Psychiatrists are not distributed uniformly throughout the country. Nationally, the psychiatrist per 100,000 population ratio is about 16.5 per 100,000 population. This relationship, which reached its peak in Massachusetts at 31.1 per 100,000, bottoming out at 4.6 per 100,000 in Idaho. Against the balance of the five states with the highest rates in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, California and Texas are the five states with the lowest rates: Idaho, Wyoming, South Dakota and North Dakota and Economy
Health job losses caused by recession revenue directly affects all doctors. When millions of people lose their jobs also lose their health insurance and medical care patients can lose pay. Hopefully the loss of small-term employment is a setback, but it does affect the demand for services and income to physicians immediately. This in effect destroys the underlying projections of demand growth was a few years ago.
Orthopaedic Employment Outlook About 4% of 650 000 physicians specializing in orthopedic surgery according to the Department of Labor More than half of practicing physicians are orthopedic general orthopedics, while eleven percent are vertebral column, ten percent are sports medicine, and the remainder specialize in other sub-specialty of orthopedics. The huge problem is that up to 33% of practicing physicians today can retire in 2020.

An overview of holistic medicine

Holistic medicine is health care that covers all aspects of the personality of a s’ to obtain the optimum state of wellness. Is part of the process of looking at the whole person, including nutritional, physical, spiritual, environmental, lifestyle and social values. Holistic medicine includes virtually all treatments and diagnosis known to achieve a balanced personality. Confirms the responsibility to educate himself to reach the ideal above all health and welfare.

holistic and alternative medicine

Medicine Alternative medicine has been associated with holistic medicine. By definition, alternative medicine is the medical technology that are not generally accepted or practiced by conventional doctors. Most alternative medicines are based to be rooted in the principles unscientific, unproven and non-traditional. Often these forms of medicine are closely associated with metaphysical components and is anti-scientific.

Many of these techniques often do not have pharmaceutical value such as acupuncture, herbal medicine, reiki, homeopathy and the likes. But, alternative medicine can also be used in experimental non-drug and drug techniques which are not yet accepted in medical circles. The future of alternative medicine has the potential to transform the “alternative medicine” in conventional medicine as it is becoming very well loved and practiced by physicians. In fact, complementary medicine is the term used for alternative medicine is practiced in conjunction with conventional medicine.

Because of these changes by looking at alternative medicine, holistic medicine has become a preferred choice among those who are doubtful of alternative medicine.

Alternative medicine may appeal to metaphysical beliefs and so does holistic medicine, but the softer approach with more scientific basis. But, the applied knowledge in holistic medicine still can not hide the fact that it tends to stick to non-scientific knowledge.

Briefly holistic medicine claims to cure and treat the whole person. Holistic medicine stresses the unification of mind and physical body. practitioners of holistic medicine to give credence to the belief that man is not purely physical organ systems and parts that cover. The man is also a spiritual being that requires spiritual healing. Holistic medicine refers to the belief of the connection between mind and emotions and mind.

The gap between holistic medicine and alternative medicine is close to common practice not to use drug treatments and surgeries. Usually used meditation, herbs, prayers, vitamins and minerals and exotic diets in treating certain ailments.
holistic medicine and conventional medicine

allopathic or conventional medicine defines health as non-individual outbreaks of disease, which appeals to a negative approach in defining the condition. Holistic medicine on the other hand concerns itself absolute state of a person’s physical, social, mental and spiritual well being.

Based on the definition (which is commonly used by doctors), orthodox medicine remains to deal with the susceptibility to disease rather than health instead of holistic medicine. On the basis of common observations, conventional medicine usually does not apply to healthy individuals. While holistic medicine focuses on the quality of life practiced by the people. Patients are often not seek medical attention until symptoms of the disease / s are evident. Therefore, there is no preventive treatment for the disease very soon.

There are huge differences between holistic medicine and conventional, both in diagnosis and treatment. Most of which are scientifically based. In opposition to this view, the diagnosis in the treatment are conceived through the manifestations of the imbalance of the body. These procedures are determined by certain distinctive only holistic medicine and other related medical practices.

The people who have already undergone one of these complaint procedures is not terrible in treating or all of these practices. But, individual preferences still have a hand in what will be accepted as the ideal.

While New York City as a major fashion and entertainment capital has always had significant spa services offerings, they were previously limited to traditional spa treatments like facials, massage and waxing. Today but, medical spa services, which combine cosmetic medicine procedures with the experience of an aesthetic day spa, are increasingly accessible and well loved. The latest medical spa services include laser hair removal, veins removal, wrinkles treatment, chemical peels and more are all the rage, and New York City certainly has no shortage of these medical spa services. In fact, the availability of medical spa services is so well recognized and sought after that major New York City publications regularly rank the best of the best in terms of quality and variety of medical spa services, prices, customer environment and overall experience. Increasingly New York City’s medical spa services are combining both medical and non-medical treatments at the same facility, so that you can get quick, well loved medical spa services like Botox or collagen in the same set of appointments as your usual manicure or pedicure. Centers specializing in medical spa services for cosmetic dentistry, such as tooth whitening, are also springing up. Medical spas are defined as such, not just because they offer treatments that are medical in nature, but because a doctor is on-site to supervise and administer services as appropriate. This allows for the highest standard of care in aesthetic procedures, which while increasingly commonplace can carry some risks. It also allows you to get medical input into what medical spa services will give you the results you’re looking for in smoother, younger, firmer and healthier skin. Medical spa services generally require some recovery time, but of course allow you to go home promptly after treatment. But, injectibles, microdermabrasion and chemical and fruit acid peels can all result in temporary redness, swelling and tenderness, so it’s vital to remember that these spa treatments should be done appropriately in advance of a special occasion and scheduled so that you can go home and relax as you wait for their incredible results to take effect. While much of the emphasis on medical spa services is on the face, medical spa services in New York City address the whole body. One of the most well loved medical spa services is laser hair removal as a more effective, long-term and less painful alternative to waxing or electrolysis or hair removal on any part of the body. Laser hair removal treatment requires a series of appointments (usually six, but it can vary) to reach the full level of efficacy. Other body treatments available at New York City medical spas include non-surgical cellulite reduction treatments such as Velashape. These non-surgical cellulite reduction procedures generally utilize massage as well as heat, radio waves and massage to break up cellulite and improve the appearance of areas affected by it. Like many medical spa services, some discomfort is common but recovery is simple. Other medical spa services available in New York City include focus on other common problems that can cause discomfort both aesthetic and physical such as spider and varicose veins, podiatry concerns and even treatments for excess sweating. Additionally, many of New York City’s medical spas offer products for take-home use that maintain or continue the work done in the medical spa setting. While spa services in general were once considered largely the domain of women, medical spa services are targeted to and used by both genders. Many medical spas offer couples treatment services or specifically target the needs of one gender or the other. Without a doubt, if you are interested in medical spa services, New York City has offerings that will address your particular needs.

Dwarka is a sub city of Delhi that is located in the western part of the city. It is located near to the domestic and international airport, both of them are at 20 and 10 min drive from Dwarka respectively. Dwarka is the largest plotted sub city in the area of Delhi NCR with lots of greenery and open spaces. The area has mostly housing societies and flats built by Delhi Development Authority to provide residential facilities to the residents of the area. Dwarka is spread over an area of 5648 hectares approximately, out of which 20% is maintained as green area. This sub city of Dwarka is surrounded by national / Indira Gandhi International Airport, Cantonment Area, Bijwasan, Janak Puri and Vikas Puri. At present more than 6,70000 Lacs people are residents of Dwarka and the area is ready to accommodate more people from all over the globe.

Being one of the best plotted and modern residential areas in the country, Dwarka is tend to serve the people from all over the world who have came here in the sub city to become a part of it. It provides all the facilities that you can reckon of, to its residents so that they do not have to go here and there, in search of any thing they need. Whether you reckon of the facilities in the residential societies or about the educational facilities or about the medical facilities – all are provided in the sub city and that too of world class. The transport facilities in the region are too accessible to each part of the area. Dwarka is well connected with a network of roads and with the construction of flyovers and under passes in the area; it has become more accessible to the other parts of Delhi NCR. Now, with the introduction of metro in Dwarka, now it becomes more accessible to the other parts of Delhi.

The medical facilities in the city are of world class and the authorities of the area are leaving no stone unturned for providing these facilities to the residents of Dwarka region. The region has many private and government hospitals which has provide the city’s medical facilities a more and satisfactory  image with better medical equipments, treatments, special health care services and highly qualified clan of trained health care experts. There are various multi specialty hospitals in the area that includes hospitals like Bensups Hospital, Metro Hospital and Heart Institute, Ayushman etc, which provides world class medical treatments offering 24 hours emergency services, well equipped lab and enriched pharmacy. Seeing the future growth in terms of development of the area, the government has also chose and announced the construction of 750 bedded comprehensive health care named as Bharat Ratna Indira Gandhi Hospital in the area. Now, the public get best medical facility in the region with in your accessibility of the area. Now, visit Dwarka to avail the world class medical facilities in the Delhi NCR.

Overview Of Medical SpecialtiesEmergency Care Review As the population ages, the need for Emergency and Urgent care also rises. The existing physician shortage in the United States is expected to go downhill over time. Other issues are encouraging this shortage as well, including the spiralling economy and the recent approved health care reform. As is the case elsewhere in the country, Emergency Medicine in Texas is experiencing many of the same challenges as other specialties. Urology, the surgery field of the urinary passages and the male reproductive system, is a consistently increasing field for physicians in the United States. Now, approximately forty-three million men in the United States are plagued with urological maladies of some sort. Some of these non-surgical maladies include bladder incontinence, urinary tract infections, and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Until there is resolution to the current political debate, the healthcare industry will be in limbo. The same thing happened when Hillary Clinton was leading the push for healthcare reform in 1993. Only when it becomes clear what the future will be, hospitals and physicians are unable to make plans for the future. A recently medical study shows students are reportedly choosing not to specialize in gynecology due to the high cost of malpractice insurance. Litigation has caused the insurance premiums to rise, which has led to many OBGYN leaving their practice. In the meantime, the number of positions is expected to grow quicker than average between now and 2014 due to population growth. This had led to fewer health care options in many states for women. History of Cardiology Cardiology has been a prime medical specialty throughout the history of modern medicine. Cardiologists treat diseases and irregularities of the heart. A general cardiologist does not perform surgery. Physicians in the cardiology field who do perform surgeries include cardiac pulmonologists, cardiothoracic surgeons, and cardiovascular surgeons. Modern cardiology has a deeply rooted history with theories still in use dating back to 1628. Clearly as the population ages the need for oncology services will increase. The only question to question is will there be money to pay for this increased need and where will it come from in this economy? The ongoing debate between the Republicans and Democrats over health care really centers on whether it should happen at all and if it does who will pay for the additional 30,000,000 people to be insured. Hospitalist Specialty Overview/Introduction- In the United States, there are approximately twenty eight thousand Hospitalists practicing today. Approximately 50% of hospitals across the nation have a branch of this specialized unit. Because of growing demand many medical education facilities are developing Hospitalist-based residencies. Hospitalists have just developed in the last ten or fifteen years. Demographics The face of United States is changing dramatically according to a new report from the U. S. Census Bureau the average age is increasing quickly. The number of people aged 65 and over are expected to double within the next 25 years. Nearly 20% of all Americans will be 65 years or older by 2030. Further, the age group 85 and older is now the fastest growing segment of the U. S. population. The health of older Americans is improving. HEALTH CARE REFORM The ongoing saga of health reform having an impact on all specialties. Until it becomes clear exactly what is being changed and how that will effect each party the market will be hamstrung. Indecision effects spending on expansion and hiring at all levels of health care. Some aspects of the bill are trying to address shortages in primary care. Urgent Care Review As the population ages, the need for Emergency and Urgent Care also grows. The current physician shortage in the United States is expected to worsen over time. Other issues are affecting this shortage as well, including the shrinking economy and the impending health care reform. Primary Care Shortage leads to Urgent Care Physician shortage. Uneven Supply Psychiatrists are not spread across the country evenly. Nationally, the psychiatrist per 100,000 population ratio stands at about 16. 5 per 100,000. That ratio, which reaches its high in Massachusetts at 31. 1 per 100,000, bottoms out at 4. 6 per 100,000 in Idaho. Counter-balancing the five states with the highest ratios Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, California, and Texas are the five states with the lowest ratios: Idaho, Wyoming, South Dakota, and North DakotaEconomics and Health The job loss caused by the recession directly impacts all physicians income. When millions of people lose their jobs, they also lose their health care insurance and physicians lose patients that can pay. Hopefully the job loss is a small term set back, but it does affect demand for services and income for physicians immediately. This in effect destroys the underlying projections of the growth of demand made just a few years ago. Orthopedic Job Outlook About 4% of all 650,000 physicians are specialized in Orthopaedic Surgery according to the Labor Dept. Over half of the physicians practicing orthopedics are general orthopedics, while eleven percent are spinal, ten percent are sports medicine, and the remainder specialize in other sub-specialties of Orthopedics. The huge issue is that as many as 33% of today’s practicing physicians may retire by the year 2020.

Wrangling over economic and national security issues has left health and genetic discussions on the backburner in the presidential race. But, the three leading candidates have been active on these issues during and prior to their time in the Senate. Barack Obama has encouraged personalized medicine research and genetic test regulation; John McCain has concentrated on stem cell research; and Hillary Clinton has been active in all of these areas as well as newborn screening and genetic and environment interactions.

Genomic Research and Personalized Medicine

Clinton’s and Obama’s past initiatives demonstrate their strong support for and encouragement of the growth and application of genetics-based medicine. From 1998 to 2000, as First Lady, Clinton held nine events called Millennium Evenings at the White House. Each focused on a different subject, and included a session titled “Informatics Meets Genomics” that stressed the development and importance of genetic research.

Obama has sponsored a genetics-related bill twice in his approximately three years in the Senate; both times the legislation stalled in Senate committees. He stated that the goal of the Genomics and Personalized Medicine Act was “to secure the promise of personalized medicine for all Americans by expanding and accelerating genomics research and initiatives to improve the accuracy of disease diagnosis, increase the safety of drugs, and identify novel treatments. ”

The bill would have required formal studies of genetic technology in order to advance the field. It also sought to go this field forward through a national biobanking research initiative, and the 2006 version included support for local biobanking initiatives. Additionally, it encouraged the movement of genetic technology from the research laboratory to the clinic through increased training of healthcare professionals and the creation of genetic screening tools, diagnostics, and treatments from genomic information gathered from research initiatives.

Obama attended the 2006 Genetics and Public Policy Center’s National Genetic Policy Summit. At this event, he highlighted “the unparalleled promise genomics holds” of tailoring treatments to people’s individual genetics. But, he pointed out that few genetics-based tests had reached the market. This is what prompted him to introduce the Genomics and Personalized Medicine Act of 2006, he told the audience. Through the bill, he said he hoped to spur increased support for genomics, modernization of the Food and Drug Administration’s process of evaluating genetics tests, and the creation of a database of information from the proposed national biobank.

Genetic Privacy

Clinton cosponsored the Genetic Nondiscrimination in Health Insurance and Employment Act (2001) and the Equal Rights and Equal Dignity for Americans Act of 2003, which sought to outlaw genetic discrimination by employers and health insurance companies. Neither bill reached the Senate floor for a vote, but a similar comprehensive anti- genetic discrimination bill, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Acts (GINA) of 2003 and 2005, has passed twice in the Senate. In both years, the bill passed unanimously but then stalled in the House.

In 2003 Clinton and McCain voted in favor of the bill – Obama was not yet elected to office. In her statement on this bill, Clinton said, “Americans have already shown that they will not fully participate in genetic research or take advantage of genetic technologies until they believe that they are protected against genetic discrimination in health insurance and employment. ” She added, “Discrimination based on genetic information would be a step backward for civil rights and human dignity. ” In 2005 Clinton was one of 25 cosponsors of the bill, and both McCain and Obama voted in favor of it. In 2007 Clinton and Obama cosponsored the current version of GINA with 36 other Senators, but the Senate has not yet voted on it.

Clinton also has addressed genetic discrimination in other ways than GINA. In her introduction to the “Informatics Meets Genomics” Millennium Evening, Clinton questioned, “How will we make sure that knowledge about our genes is used to heal us, not deny us health insurance or jobs?” Additionally, in 2001 Senate floor statements, she emphasized the need for Congress to address genetic discrimination.

Regulation of Genetic Tests

Obama called for increased genetic test regulation at the Center’s National Genetic Policy Summit and in the Genomics and Personalized Medicine Act. Among its provisions, the Genomics bill includes “[improving] access to and appropriate utilization of valid, reliable and accurate molecular genetic tests. ” Obama stressed that that this would require “greater attention to the quality of genetic tests, direct-to-consumer advertising, and use of personal genomic information. ” He said he wanted the bill to increase the “safety, efficacy, and availability of information about genetic tests. ” The bill would initiate a study regarding Federal oversight of genetic tests, make a framework for genetic test review, promote transparency by requiring information from federally funded biobanking initiatives to be publicly available, and evaluate direct-to-consumer marketing.

Stem Cell Research and Cloning

Clinton, Obama, and McCain have supported federal funding of embryonic stem cell research. All three candidates voted in favor of the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2007, which would have authorized human embryonic stem cell research with the condition that the stem cells were from excess embryos donated from in vitro fertilization clinics. In Senate floor statements, McCain remarked that the bill “promote[d] the benefits of stem cell research while maintaining clearly our ethical and moral values and obligations” and that “[s]tem cell research has the potential to give us a better understanding of deadly diseases and spinal cord injuries affecting millions of Americans. ” This bill passed the Senate and the House, but was vetoed by the President.

All three candidates have opposed human cloning. The Human Cloning Ban Act of 2005 was cosponsored by Clinton and Obama, and the Human Cloning Prohibition Act of 2007 was cosponsored by McCain. Both bills are still in Senate committees. Clinton again demonstrated her opposition to cloning by cosponsoring the Human Cloning Ban and Stem Cell Research Protection Act of 2005, which also never left the Senate committee to which it was referred. The bill was designed to build an ethical framework for stem cell research by banning human cloning, prohibiting research on embryos after they are 14 days ancient (excluding any time they are stored at subzero temperatures), requiring informed consent of egg donors, mandating that eggs be donated and not sold or bought, and requiring egg collection sites to be separate from research laboratories.

McCain cosponsored the Human-Animal Hybrid Prohibition Act of 2007, which is still in committee. Due to a shortage of donated embryos from IVF treatments, some researchers want to remove the nuclei of animal eggs and replace them with human DNA. After the embryos develop for up to two weeks, the stem cells would be removed and the embryos ruined. Scientists would then grow the stem cells, study their development and the causes of diseases, and test treatments on the cells. The act would prohibit this practice, as well as the creation of human-animal embryos for any other purpose, on ethical grounds.

Newborn Screening

Clinton has cosponsored two bills related to newborn screening, including introducing the Screening for Health of Infants and Newborns Act (SHINE) in 2006 and 2007. In her introductory remarks, she highlighted that “[e]arly detection by newborn screening can lessen side effects or completely prevent progression of many … disorders if medical intervention is started early enough” and that “[e]very child should have access to tests that may prevent them from a life-threatening disease. ” The bill aimed to help states strengthen their screening programs; to establish procedures for newborn screening tests, reporting, and data standards for states; and to make a database of “current educational and family support and services information, materials, resources, research, and data on newborn screening. ”

The SHINE Act failed to progress past a Senate committee, but its provision to make a database was incorporated into The Newborn Screening Saves Lives Act of 2007, which Clinton cosponsored. This bill also would make a screening program at the National Institutes of Health, and it passed the Senate by unanimous consent and is awaiting committee consideration in the House.

Genetics and Environmental Health

Clinton introduced the Coordinated Environmental Health Network Act in 2004 and 2005 and in 2007 as the Coordinated Environmental Public Health Network Act. This bill sought to build a network to track diseases and identify and address risks, particularly environmental risks, as well as “encourage coordination between researchers and Federal, State, and local entities, including the National Institutes of Health, for genetic studies on diseases associated with environmental factors with an emphasis on finding genetic risk factors and mutations associated with such diseases. ” In her introductory remarks for the bill in 2007, Clinton emphasized the importance of researching how genetic factors interact with the environment to cause disease, and she highlighted “initiatives like the Human Genome Project” that have made “incredible strides in our understanding of the science of genetics, so that we can better prevent and treat diseases. ” The bill currently sits with the Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions.

McCain’s, Obama’s, and Clinton’s initiatives have promoted the growth and potential of genetics as well as encouraged increased federal regulation in several areas of the field. All three candidates would bring to the office of the President the potential for much-needed movement on genetics-related issues.